Freud’s Theory of Id, Ego, Superego Essay

Sigmund Freud believed that our mind always have conflicts with itself. Anxiety and unhappiness is the main symptoms for this situation. Bertha Pappenhein alias Anna O case is one of the classic case study by Freud (Stevenson, 1996). Anna O is a young girl in her early twenties; she was a patient of Dr. Breuer. She showed some physiological and psychological disturbance like nervous cough, rigid paralysis, eye movement disturbed, power of speech reduces and others (Stevenson, 1996). After doing some hypnosis, Freud noticed that these disturbances are actually parts of her memories while she was nursing her dying father. There was once where her neighbour played a wonderful music, she was so excited and she started dancing; soon she had an urge to be at her neighbour’s house and thus leaving her father’s bedside. At that moment, she felt guilt and sadness for leaving her father’s bedside. After some time, she covers the internal conflict by coughing (Stevenson, 1996). This case had brought Freud to believe that our mind is divided into three parts- unconscious, conscious and preconscious minds which more commonly known as the id, ego and superego (Ciccarelli & White, 2012). The id or it is the primary personality found in an infant. The ids are usually demanding, immoral, illogical, irrational and selfish. It ignores about other’s desire or the reality and place it’s satisfaction at the first place (Ciccarelli & White, 2012). This is because id only functions to seek and maximize it’s pleasure and avoid pain, we say that id serves the pleasure principle (Schultz & Schultz, 2009). For example, a newborn baby; one who cries when the need is not reached but does not have the knowledge to satisfy the pleasure. Hence, the only way for the hungry infant to bring satisfaction is through reflex action. Freud has proposed this as the primary principle process (Schultz & Schultz, 2009). The only part in our mind which is in contact with reality is the ego (Feist & Feist, 2009). The ego is influenced by the â€Å"reality principle†. Ego will become more rational and logic. Besides, the ego is able to make the right decisions on each level. Ego does not ignore id’s demands but it will try to delay the action to bring satisfaction. As a child is growing up, they tend to receive punishments and gain rewards from their parents. Thus, they will learn how to avoid pain and gain pleasure at the same time (Feist & Feist, 2009). For instance, a child may want to steal some cookies from the kitchen, but will not when the parent is around (King, 2010). In short, ego can be explained as â€Å"if it feels good, do it, but only if you can get away with it† (Ciccarelli & White, 2012). The superego has the meaning of â€Å"above I† in Latin. Superego usually includes the moral values that obtained from the parents or society (McLeod, 2008). This is mainly guided by the idealistic principle where it convinces the ego to turn into moralistic goals rather than simply realistic ones. Freud suggested that around the age of 5, the superego starts to develop. According to Freud, superego consists of two parts, the conscience and ideal self. The conscience punishes the ego by creating feelings of guilt (McLeod, 2008). For example, a child steal some cookies from the kitchen, he or she will feel guilty. While for the ideal self develops from the experiences with reward for telling us how to behave and treat other people. Freud’s theory had attracted many followers due to the theory was new and creative (Plotnik, 2002). Vienna Psychoanalytic Society had formed to commence meetings with the supporters. However, some of the group members disagree with Freud’s theory and assumptions. One of the members who disagreed with Freud’s theory is Carl Jung. He was the first president of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. At the beginning he supported Freud fully; however Jung and Freud not only ended their personal relationship but also professional relationship after four years. Jung disagree that Freud emphasis too much on the sex drive, he believes that the collective unconscious is the main force in developing personality (Plotnik, 2002). The collective, universal human memories are called the archetypes (Boreree, 2006). Another member who disagrees with Freud is Alfred Adler (Plotnik, 2002). He was another contemporary of Freud who later became the president of the society. He was criticized badly by other members after he voiced out his disagreement on Freud’s theory, not long later he reigned. Alder believed that child-rearing practices and sibling influence are the main force for the development of personality. He had mentioned that the driving force behind all human endeavors is not seeking for pleasure but for superiority. Other than that, he suggested that the order of a child is born also affects the personality development (Plotnik, 2002). For instance, firstborn feel inferior when a younger child gets all the attention. Thus, they tend to be a little more competitive (Boreree, 2006). Although Freud’s theory had attracted so many followers, however there are some flaws in this theory. The main reason for this is because most of Freud’s researches are based on case study. Due to the inherent subjectivity, case study is difficult to generalize (Achilleos, 2012). The data are not gathered systematically and they are mainly based on the qualitative subjective data. In Freud’s case study, he did not keep any records of the therapy session. Besides, the validity of Freud’s data may be one of the weaknesses of this theory. He believes that taking notes during a therapy session may distract the patient, thus he discourages the analyst to take notes during the therapy session. As a result, Freud only gathers and records data based on his memory, and this might cause the data to be incomplete (Achilleos, 2012). I believed that many of us may be familiar with these three personalities. These personalities are frequently shown in the animated form (Ciccarelli & White, 2012). The little devil as the id, the superego is the little angel while the ego is the individual that is caught in the middle struggling to decide which action is right. Normally the id will demand for an act; the superego put restrictions on how the demand can be reached while the ego will negotiate between id’s demand and superego’s restrictions. Anxiety and unhappiness will form when the id or superego does not get things done according to it’s way. The constant id-superego inner conflict is Freud’s view on how the personality works (Ciccarelli & White, 2012). Although there are some flaws and lack of evidence to prove this theory, but certain parts of the theory does explain the personality of an individual.

Describe Dispositional and Situational Factors in Explaining Behavior Essay

Describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behavior Both situation and dispositional factors play a significant role in people explaining behavior. (in that they guide the judgment on both our actions and people’s actions. ) Attribution theory, known as how people interpret and explain behavior in the social world, is closely related to these two factors. People tend to attribute behavior depending on their roles as actors or observers, known as the actor-observer effect. Milgram’s study (1963) investigated the role of situation and dispositional factors in participants explaining their own behavior. Nine out of twelve participants completed the task under the researcher’s authoritative guidance. The participants considered the task unethical so they attributed their negative behavior to the researcher’s guidance instead of the dispositional factor, such as their personality. When people explain their own behavior, they tend to attribute it to situation factors such as the interference from the authority. Zimbardo et al (1973) conducted an experiment in Stanford’s prison to investigate the role of actor-observer effect. Participants were assigned with either the role of prisoners or the role of guards. In the experiment, both the guards and prisoners were very dedicated into their acting roles. Most of the prisoners obeyed the guards because the guards imposed violent behavior to the prisoners. It is found that the prisoners believed and attributed the guard’s violent behavior to the guard’s dispositional factor. When people observe other’s behavior, they usually attribute it to dispositional factor such as personality. Therefore, with the knowledge of the prison as a simulation, the prisoners still obeyed the guards like they were real guards who always acted violently. People usually attribute their behavior to situational factors when they perform the behavior. Whereas, people attribute others’ behavior to dispositional factor when they are the observers.

Deep Water in Deep Trouble Essay

What type(s) of control- feedforward, concurrent, or feedback- do you think would have been most useful in this situation? Explain your choice(s) Feedforward control would have been a good start in this situation. It would have been wise to check all of the gages on the ship before heading out onto the water. After checking once it would not hurt to double check in case something was over looked. Since the job is already dangerous, there should have been action taken to check the things that could create any bad situations. Instead, these things were not checked and lives were lost, the economy and the environment were affected by this ordeal. When signs of the problems started showing up, there should have been action taken to get everyone off the ship safely and quickly. Concurrent control would be the next thing that should have happened. Since the ship was so large and going to do such as big job, someone should have been assigned to watch the gages carefully and check all of the little things that make the ship run. Maybe if the problems would have been addressed in a timely manner, the incident could have been prevented or not as tragic. After it was all said and done is where feedback control steps in to place. By taking notes of the signs, what happened and possible ways to prevent it in the future would have been significant information. These kinds of documents could help others in the future and be a lesson to BP to have an inspection before leaving the dock. Using exhibit 10-2 explain what BP could have done better. By measuring the actual performance there could have been a test run of the ship on the course to its destination. Upon taking off, there could have been smaller ships that followed alongside to make sure there was safety if the ship had any problems. In doing so, the operator of the ship could have learned about the glitches beforehand which may have prevented the explosion. By doing a practice run, they might have been able to see the problems and put this particular job on halt until the errors were repaired. Another key element would be making sure their CB radios worked and called the right location. Once the practice run was in progress, the leading manager could have assigned jobs to the other employees. These jobs could have included checking the bottom deck, watching gages, and watching for any potential threats in the water. Each employee could have filled out a report to show what they inspected and what the outcome was of the inspection. If a section did not pass the inspection, the manager would have knowledge of what needed attention. Then the ship could have been prepared to go on their journey. Once the manager gave out the instructions on what to fix and assigned people to those jobs, another inspection could have taken place. This inspection would be to re-check the problem areas for proper corrections. Then, if all of the parts passed inspection, they would know the ship is in top condition to set sail on their trip. Schedules could have been made out for certain people to check on the areas that had problems. By assigning certain individuals, it could have helped keep better track of complications. Why do you think company employees ignored the red flags? How could such behavior be changed in the future? I think there are several ways the red flags may have been overlooked. One possible way would be poor job training. If you aren’t trained to know what something is supposed to look like or how it is supposed to work then you wouldn’t know what a problem is you saw one. It seems more and more employees have little training when being hired on to a job. That, or they just do not pay attention to what their trainer tells them. By not knowing the proper ways to do things could lead to more on the job accidents, like what happened with the BP ship. Another reason that it could have been overlooked is laziness. While the report says the problem went unnoticed until after the fact, doesn’t necessarily mean that someone did not see the problem and think it wasn’t a big enough problem to hurt anything. I think this kind of practice is becoming more common which is a scary thought. There are several ways to prevent such behavior in the future. The way the employees interact when they are trained is most likely a glimpse into their work ethic. It is not wise to show them shortcuts or easier ways to do  things in case they are on the job and need to know the correct way of doing the job. If they were to be taught an easier way and a problem arose it could cause an even bigger problem or possibly an injury. It could also leave them clueless as to what to do when they are on their own in the job. Another idea, would be to have regular meetings on the ship that are mandatory for all staff to attend. In these meetings the management team could address the rules, what is expected of the other employees, and where the ship is headed. What could other organizations learn from BP’s mistakes? A few things that other organizations could learn from this mistake is to always check for red flags. When you check your work, you have less of a chance of something going wrong. Another thing would be communication. Communication is always important, but even more so in business. When employees communicate with one another they stay better informed and sometimes learn more about their jobs from others. Communication also helps employees to know what their job is and in what areas need progress. By enforcing strict rules, it would help companies to keep their employees more focused on their jobs which will help the company be more successful. When a company sticks by the enforced rules, there is less of a chance of employees thinking they are able to slack off or take advantage of their positions due to fear of consequences. I think when managers pick favorites they allow them to bend or even break the rules. I believe that all managers should treat all employees equally and not cut slack to certain people. When this happens, it causes other employees to be hostile towards those employees and the managers that do it, which makes a lot of them not want to do as good of a job.

WEEK 4 DISCUSSION PART 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

WEEK 4 DISCUSSION PART 1 - Essay Example In order to quantify the magnitude of Medicaid fraud in the US, the study will be conducted across a wide range of participants. The study will target people who have participated in Medicaid fraud or who have been affected by the scheme. Throughout the study, anonymity of the participants will be maintained unless instructed otherwise. In addition, the study will also target professional in the medical and legislative sectors who have facilitated the scheme either directly or indirectly. The study will be conducted through both open ended and closed ended questionnaires. Research assistant will conduct manual interviews and filling of questionnaires, however, electronic (online) questionnaires will be available. In either of the data collection methods, anonymity of the participants will be maintained unless they recommend otherwise. The research site will be identified through a random process that will be highly inclusive and conclusive. The selection will target both upper and mi ddle class Americans. In addition, the study will have a professional phase whereby the participants will be drawn from both the medical and legal professionals. The study will have a quantitative segment that will capture the magnitude of the phenomenon. On the other hand, the qualitative segment of the study will focus on the reasons or factors that contribute to Medicaid fraud among Americans. In the quantitative segment of the study, the researcher will be interested in identifying the magnitude of losses incurred in the health sector due to the scheme. Financial loses will be identified as the dependent variable while time will be identified as an independent variable. The quantitative segment will also be concerned with the variation of fraud across different social classes. Thus, different income classes will be identified as independent variables while financial losses will

Using financial reports and accounts of your chosen 'WPP' analyse the Case Study

Using financial reports and accounts of your chosen 'WPP' analyse the results of the organisation highlighting trends in performance using appropriate and relevant ratios and analysis techniques - Case Study Example Notably, the company that was selected is AKQA that mainly deals in ideating and designing of digital products. This analysis would be aimed at creating the best use of financial ratios in ensuring that the company’s performance is effective. AKQA is an affiliate company that is under the WPP group of companies in the United Kingdom. Notably, the company mainly deals in creating innovative ideas and implementing the ideas to come up with the most digital products for their clients. In addition, the company deals in content creation, e-commerce, digital marketing, as well as product designing. Currently, the company’s major headquarters are found in London, United Kingdom and San Francisco, United States of America. As a company that mainly deals in digital products, AKQA has a social media team of practitioners who have unique expertise in innovation and leadership hence providing the company’s clients with a strong and stable competitive advantage. Notably, this helps the company to successfully traverse through multiple geographical regions, financial platforms and economic channels in delivering continuous solutions to its clients. Evidently, the company has branches in several countries such as Netherla nds, Germany, China, USA, UK, India and France. The company keeps financial records that can be used to analyse the various ratios that evaluates the company’s performance over a specific period [20]. Looking at the company’s annual report, it is evident that the company recorded a negative margin in billings between 2011 and 2012. Notably, the company recorded a decrease of -0.9% which resulted from a reduction in billings from  £44,792m in 2011 to  £44,405m in 2012. In addition, the company recorded a +3.5% increase in the amount of revenue. Evidently, the increase was as a result of the rise in the amount of revenue from  £10,022m in 2011 to

Articles Review Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Articles Review - Lab Report Example First is conductive, characterized by â€Å"disease or obstruction in the outer or middle ear.† Conductive hearing loss is not the most serious form of impairment, and persons with this type of hearing loss are said to do well with hearing aids, or other assisted listening devices. Sensorineural hearing loss is described next as â€Å"damage to the delicate sensorineural hair cells of the inner ear or the nerves which supply it.† Persons with sensorineural loss may have only a slight hearing loss, or they might be almost completely deaf, depending on the amount of damage. Depending on the severity of the loss, hearing aids or other assisted listening devices may not be effective. The third kind of hearing loss, mixed, is a combination of conductive and sensorineural; therefore, whether amplified listening devices are effective, will depend on the individual. Finally, central hearing loss is described as â€Å"damage or impairment of the nerves† or other part of t he central nervous system. The article goes on to discuss the fact that hearing impairments and learning disabilities do not necessarily come together, and ends with a very brief description of helpful assisted listening devices (Deafness, 2004). â€Å"You Are Not Alone† is an article that describes the negative feelings parents might experience upon finding out a child has a disability. It describes the process of denial, anger, grief, fear, guilt, confusion, powerlessness, disappointment, and rejection that many parents face. It also offers advice. It encourages parents to seek out other parents who have been through a similar situation because they might be able to offer, â€Å"hope for the future† (Smith, 2003). It also advises talking to a significant other, family member, or other adult who will listen to concerns; relying on positive resources to alleviate some of the feelings of helplessness; taking one day

18th and 19th century creative artists role Essay

18th and 19th century creative artists role - Essay Example The features of art movements reveal a lot about the times in which the artists lived. The mid-eighteenth century saw the rising of an art movement called rococo. Previously, baroque dominated art in Europe, specifically in France where rococo emerged. The emergence of rococo resulted from the extreme use of the baroque in court paintings during the reign of Louis XIV (Sheriff and Watteau 27). Architecture, painting, sculptures and any art form in that era exhibited the baroque features. With some creative artists feeling that it was time for France to explore more in art and its different tastes, rococo emerged. With the new art culture, artists assumed the role of â€Å"social leaders.† During the emergence of rococo, the creative artists played the role of conveying changes in society to the people. Creative artists represented each of the social changes in their work. The death of Louis XIV motivated artists to adopt a new art style to mark the end of reign (Sheriff and Watteau 27). Artists sought to create a transition from the stringent use of baroque effects. In addition, the control of artwork shifted to aristocrats. Before rococo emerged, artists emphasized the value of power in society in most of the art pieces. In the period of rococo, many artists utilized art to emphasize the importance of entertainment. In this era, the attitudes of society had changed because of a new reign in the royalty. Creative artists sought to represent the political changes in society in their artwork and opted for a relaxed style that could emphasize the shift. In addition, the artists also acted to sensitize people on the changing roles of women in society. Europe was beginning to accept contribution of women to society. Although this was to a less extent and women did not have many rights, the theme appeared greatly in rococo work. The creative artists were sensitizing society on the change of attitude towards women. Moreover, some paintings and sculptures by

Current Climate Change and Mitigation Research Paper

Current Climate Change and Mitigation - Research Paper Example Climate change is one of the greatest threats to modern civilization.   Earth is currently experiencing a rapid increase in mean temperature.   The global scope of this phenomenon makes it particularly challenging because efforts to address the problem require cooperation between many different nations and international corporations.   Add to this the disagreements over the veracity of the problem and the mechanisms causing our planet to warm, and what you will find is a very dangerous situation with no easy remedies. Earth’s climate is a changeable climate.   We know through studying dendrochronology, ice core samples, mud core samples and historical records that the earth has gone through many cyclical changes in climate over the millennia. As little as 1000 years ago, the earth experienced a period of rapid warming known as the Medieval Warming Period. Northern locations, such as the southern regions of Greenland became inhabitable and were colonized by Viking settlers. A mere 200 years ago saw the northern hemisphere experience a climate anomaly known as the Little Ice Age. European glacial ice advanced down mountainsides, growing seasons shortened and crops failed. What caused these most recent episodes of climate change? That question is an important one because its answer is at the heart of the current debate surrounding the veracity of our current heating. Many complex systems help to regulate earth’s temperature. The circulation of warm waters from the equator towards the pole and cold water from cold to warm helps to evenly distribute heat in the northern and southern hemispheres. Changes in this thermohaline circulation have been linked to periods of cooling on earth. The amount of aerosols emitted from volcanic activity is also a factor that determines world climate. Other determinants involve the changing degree of axial tilt of the earth and the variable distance between the earth and the sun caused by an ever-changing (albeit slowly) orbit around the sun.  Ã‚  

Management Maturity Model Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Management Maturity Model - Research Paper Example Killen and Hunt (2013) stressed the maturity level of any project and argued that the project maturity level is directly linked to the long term value of the project portfolio and resource allocation. Apart from Killen and Hunt (2013), other research scholars such as Rad and Levin (2006) and Pellegrinelli and Garangna (2009) have also stressed that project management maturity model is one of the crucial factors for any project management team. In the context of theoretical arguments of research scholars and project managers, the researcher has decided to shed light on project management maturity model with the help of both practical examples and theoretical hypotheses. Although the researcher is a project manager, throughout the paper the researcher will take a conjectural view in order to address the research problem in a fact-driven manner. Project Management Maturity Model Korbel and Benedict defined a project management maturity model (PMMM) as the systematic framework for a project management team to perform benchmarking and deliver value to the modern organization. A maturity model is basically an assessment approach by which an organization compares its project performance with the industry’s best practices and prepares a structured pathway to improve the existing processes. Korbel and Benedict pointed out a number of benefits associated with project management maturity models (PMMM) such as cost saving, an increase in the preciseness of project schedules and improvement of the quality of the project. ... f research scholars and project managers, the researcher has decided to shed light on project management maturity model with the help of both practical examples and theoretical hypotheses. Although the researcher is a project manager, throughout the paper the researcher will take a conjectural view in order to address the research problem in a fact-driven manner. Project Management Maturity Model Korbel and Benedict (2007) defined a project management maturity model (PMMM) as the systematic framework for a project management team to perform benchmarking and deliver value to the modern organization. The maturity model is basically an assessment approach by which an organization compares its project performance with the industry’s best practices and prepares a structured pathway to improve the existing processes. Korbel and Benedict (2007) pointed out a number of benefits associated with project management maturity models (PMMM) such as cost saving, increase in preciseness of pr oject schedules and improvement of quality of the project. Research scholars have found a positive relationship between project performance and project maturity level. The relationship can be depicted in the following manner; Figure 1: Relationship Between Project Maturity Level & Project Performance (Source: Korbel & Benedict, 2007) The above mentioned model is showing that the performance of a project increases as its maturity level increases. The researcher believes that there cannot be one PMM model which can be used in all projects. As a project manager, the researcher has recalibrated the PMM model in order to satisfy the interests of the stakeholders of the project. For example, a PMM model for a health and safety project differs significantly from that for a construction project.

Commentery Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Commentery - Thesis Example The king was then considered to be the guardian of the country and the rise of the parliament was obstructed for a very long time as a result of this theory of the Divine-Right of the king. The powers of the king and the institution of monarchy in England and other parts of Europe have been extremely pronounced and have maintained a strong hold on the public imagination. The king often worked in conjunction with religious authorities of the day so as to maintain monarchical control over the kingdom and over the minds of the people. Through the ages, the institution of monarchy sought to perpetuate itself through discourses that brought in several ideas such as the divine and the social. There have been occasions on which this dissent has translated itself into great violence. One of the greatest instances of this is the execution of the king in England in the seventeenth century by the Puritan regime. The French revolution can be considered to be the culmination of the bourgeoisie so ciety’s resistance against monarchy (New Tensions in the Western Political Tradition: Absolutism and Parliament 23-4). The French revolution then can be considered to be one of the most important moments in the history of Europe where the ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity were considered. These then influenced to a great extent the rise of democracy and the state as an institution of the modern society. The Divine Right theories that were talked of during the medieval ages were then looked upon as something that prevented the transfer of power into the hands of the common people. As explained earlier, the French Revolution led to the displacement of the ideals of monarchy. The importance of this lies in the fact that the overthrow of monarchy was accompanied by a great many changes in the social structures of that period. The complicity of the church in the control that was exercised

Activity Plan and Initial Recommendations for Tourism Company Essay

Activity Plan and Initial Recommendations for Tourism Company - Essay Example The researcher will be looking into past results and report with the help of secondary data collections methods which will be gathered from books, journal, internet and previous report with respect to tourism. Since the idea is to increase the rate travelling in our target consumers, we will be focusing on questionnaire which will focus on questions like frequency of travel, favourite destinations, etc. with these kinds of data we will be able to understand the trend of our consumers, their preferable destinations so that design and modify our packages accordingly. Before the researcher starts the activity planning and showcases the company, he needs to build the audience in to present it to them. So audience building is an essential part of the tourism industry. So the first focus will be building a new and existing group of audience. Audience development is about putting them in the center of the stage and trying to comprehend what individuals need; exhibiting our facility, gatheri ng or activity in a manner which is receptive, and welcoming; and empowering interest and engagement. As of late, there has been an expanding accentuation on audience improvement, especially from Government, open segment offices and stipend giving forms, for example, the Lottery funders. The inclination is that creating a more extensive cross-area of help is critical to building future backing for the legacy and that openly subsidized organizations have an obligation to captivate with all segments of the neighborhood.

Working with Communities Essay Example for Free

Working with Communities Essay Community: A common bond by which people choose to associate around. It is a very slippery idea. Sociologically it is almost meaningless. It can be based, for example, on: place, ethnicity, religious affiliation, leisure interests, work, traditions, politics, class, age. The list is almost endless. Neighbourhood: A residential area where those who live there consider it to be their locality. (Hawtin et al, 1994) The more complex answer is that it depends on the community and the issues involved. In general, a sustainable community is a geographic area and includes everything in that areahuman and nonhuman, animal, vegetable, and mineral. In some cases, political boundaries such as town, city or county limits might be most useful in delineating a community. In other cases, watersheds or other natural boundaries might be most useful. What is important is that the members of the community be involved in deciding the boundaries of their community and how to make that community a sustainable community. (Hart, 1998) Within any area, the ‘community’ is likely to be made up of many different interest groups, which will come together for a whole variety of reasons. Community groups may focus on ‘place’ – the area where they live and work; or may focus on interests, principles, issues, values or religion. Both types of group may have an interest in planning issues. Some of these groups will be well established and represented. In other cases, however, interests may not be homogeneous, for example large and small businesses. Effective involvement cannot happen without a good understanding of the make up, needs and interests of al those different groups and their capacity to engage. An inclusive approach is needed to ensure that different groups have the opportunity to participate and are not disadvantaged in the process. Identifying and understanding the needs of groups who find it difficult to engage with the planning system is essential. (Communities and Local Gover nment, 2004) The Welsh Assembly Government proposed that each local authority in Wales works collaboratively with the corresponding local health board to prepare a Health, Social Care and Well Being Strategy, the local public health director in Swansea undertook an assessment of the health and social care needs of the population living in the City and County of Swansea. Needs assessment is a method of identifying unmet health, well-being and social care needs of a population in a systematic way. It provides the information upon which decisions about tackling those unmet needs can be made. Demand is an expressed need. Separating a want from a need is not a simple task since many people may want things they do not need. (National Health Service, 2003) Needs assessment involves epidemiological, comparative and corporate methods to describe the problems and issues facing a population. Also addressing the provision of and access to services, activities, facilities and amenities, which are needed to respond to these inequalities. The needs assessment will draw on both quantitative and qualitative sources. It should inform Strategy priority setting and decision making which will need to take account of the most effective use of resources, clinical and cost effectiveness and the views of patients, service users and carers. (NHS, 2003) Each needs assessment should address wider needs in addition to health, social care and well-being needs. A good needs assessment should present information on: †¢ Mortality, disability and health-related quality of life; †¢ Education, skills and training; †¢ Income; †¢ Employment and the economy; †¢ Housing; †¢ Physical environment; †¢ Community safety and crime; †¢ Social capital/ civic engagement; †¢ Geographical access. (Welsh Assembly Government, 2003) Factors affecting the health and well-being of communities are; social, economic and environmental factors, health promotion and education, health protection and nutrition, the safety of food, community development and regeneration and sustainable development, inequalities in health and well-being, access to health and well-being services and inequalities in access to such services, the availability of and access to public and community transport, the availability of and access to education, training and employment, the standard and condition of housing. (NHS, 2003) The local authority and local health board must ensure that needs assessment covers: †¢ Children and young people, including young carers; †¢ Disabled people; †¢ Carers; †¢ The needs of core groups identified in legislation, in particular section 17 of the 1989 Children Act; †¢ Vulnerable Adults; †¢ Older people; †¢ Adults with mental health needs; and †¢ Children and young people with mental health needs. This list is not comprehensive but identifies key client groups whose needs should be included in the assessment. (Welsh Assembly Government, 2003) The Health, Social Care Well Being Strategies (Wales) Regulations 2003 also state that Local Authorities (LA’s) and Local Health Boards (LHB) have a duty to co-operate with a wide range of partners during the preparation of the strategy, including: †¢ NHS Trusts †¢ Community Health Councils †¢ County Voluntary Councils †¢ Health Commission Wales †¢ Any private, business, voluntary or other organisations with an interest in the provision of health and well being services. In co-operating with voluntary and other organisations with an interest in the provision of health and well being services, the Local Authority and LHB must include groups and/or organisations representing the interests of patients, service users and carers. The local health board, local authority and the local NHS trust, together with the community health council and the Council for Voluntary Services in Swansea are members of a Strategy Board, created to oversee the production of the Swansea Health, Social Care and Well Being Strategy. (NHS, 2003) To achieve this goal both partners had to undertake a system known as â€Å"Community Profiling†. Community profiling is recognised as a vital stage in planning a service that will meet the needs of a community it serves. Community profiling is a systematic process of collecting, organising and analysing data about a given community and its environment. The analysis of the data collected will allow services to make inferences concerning a particular community’s needs and interests, only then can customised services be designed by selecting the appropriate materials targeted to those inferred interests and needs (Hawtin et al, 1994) Community profiling involves building up a picture of the nature, needs and resources of a community with the active participation of that community. Greer and Hale (2002) suggest that it is a useful first stage in any community planning process, to establish context which is widely agreed. A range of methods are used to enable the community to develop and understanding of itself, these methods combine group working and group interaction techniques with data collection and presentation techniques (Greer and Hale, 2002) The City and County of Swansea has many contrasts. It has large rural areas, a significant urban centre, and areas of wealth and of deprivation. Most of the population is concentrated in the urban areas which are mainly focused on Swansea. The latest estimate of the population of the City and County of Swansea stands at 231,300 (Mid Year Estimate, 2009). Swansea has the third highest population of the 22 Welsh Unitary Authorities, representing almost 8% of the total population of Wales (2,999,300). The 2009 Mid Year Estimates were released by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) on 24 June 2010. The migratory flow is relatively stable. The number of live births for the county has also remained relatively constant at 54.6 per 1,000 females and has generally mirrored the Welsh average at 56.7 per cent. (Office of National Statistics, 2010) Projections for Wales point to a 2 per cent fall in the under-16 age group share of the population and a 2.5 per cent increase in the share of the population of retirement age by 2011. It is likely that this pattern of age will be reflected in the county, an area that already has a lower proportion aged under-16 and higher proportion of people of retirement age than in the UK as a whole. 14.3 per cent of Swansea’s residents can speak Welsh which is lower than the all Wales figure of 26.7 per cent. (Care and Social Services Inspectorate Wales, 2009) The vast majority of the population of Swansea (97.8 per cent) is white. The local black and ethnic minority communities comprise of 2.2 per cent of the population. The largest minority ethnic groups are Bangladeshi, Pakistani, Indian, Chinese and Arabic communities. The number of asylum seekers accommodated by private providers in Swansea in December 2002 was 384, drawn from 40 nationalities with approximately 31 per cent aged between 0-16. Swansea experiences relatively high levels of homelessness. In 1997, 3.2 people per 1,000 population were reported unintentionally homeless and in priority need, compared with a welsh average of 1.5. (Office National Statistics, 2010) Using the health status rankings from 2005/2007, the rate of limiting long-term illness in Swansea was reported as 24.7 per cent. This compares with a welsh figure of 23.3 per cent. The total unemployment rate for Swansea at October 2002 stood at 3.8 per cent compared with the national rate for Wales of 3.6 per cent. The workforce of Swansea is mainly concentrated within the service sector, which accounts for almost 85 per cent of all employees. The city and council of Swansea is the single largest employer in the area with more than 11,500 employees. The lower Swansea Valley was the location of the first Enterprise Zone in the UK and as a result it is estimated that over 8,000 jobs have been created in more than 400 firms. The European Union has now granted Objective 1 status to West Wales and the Valleys. It is anticipated that in excess of  £1.2 billion in grant aid will be attracted to the area over the net five years. (CSSIW, 2009) The Better Swansea Partnership includes Swanseas main public service providers as well as representatives of the voluntary and business sectors. Its purpose is to ensure that decision makers work together to tackle the issues that matter for Swansea. The Better Swansea Partnership has two main roles; As Swanseas Community Strategic Partnership it aims to make Swansea a better place by leading the development and delivery of ‘Shared Ambition is Critical – Swanseas Community Strategy’. This is a strategic role which means ensuring that key plans are delivered and that key partnerships work as effectively as possible; As Swanseas Local Service Board it acts as a problem solver and aims to tackle a small number of service delivery issues. These are typically issues where there is a high number of providers and where citizens may find services confusing and difficult to access. These are also issues which are important to the community but which have proved difficult t o resolve. (City County of Swansea, 2010) The Youth Offending Team is strategically managed through the authority’s Chief Executive who chairs a multi-agency steering group including Police, Probation and health partners. Oversight of the Supporting People Programme has been undertaken by a central Supporting People Planning team with representatives from local housing associations, large service providers, the Probation services and the Local Health Group. The Social Services Department is host to The All Wales Support Unit and has contributed significantly to a number of policy and service initiatives at national and regional levels. The Voluntary sector in Swansea ranges from very small organisations, self-help groups and associations run solely by volunteers to large agencies that employ over 80 members of staff. The Swansea health, social care and well-being strategy group claim there are over 800 voluntary organisations that work within Swansea insisting that they make a vital contribution to the health and well-being of the population as well as the economy of the city. They argue that voluntary sector organisations can tackle needs which may be beyond the capabilities and resources of public sector organisations. Both the Local Authority and the Local Health Board commission a range of services from the voluntary sector to compliment existing statutory services. Family carers also make a considerable contribution to health and well-being by providing an estimated 800,000 hours of care a week in Swansea which has been given an estimated value of 187 million a year. (City County of Swansea, 2010) In relation to this, meeting service user’s needs and addressing their concerns can be implemented by professionals through the use of empowering the service user. Malin (1999) states that empowerment is generally known to constitute a change or gain in power by the service user. Empowerment can be seen as a process of involvement, democracy, consultation, choice and independence for the user. Malin explored the forces that community services could implement to promote empowerment. They argue that user/self advocacy mandates professional/practitioner persuasion, legal and policy imperatives are required. (Malin, 1999) The review found that some people in the City and County of Swansea are served well by Social Services and the prospects of services improving in the future are judged to be promising. The authority has made good progress in children’s services, where there have been improvements in social work practice and in the overall quality of services provided. Child protection services are diligently delivered and there is a wide range of responsive and imaginative family support services. Looked-after children are receiving better services although improvements are needed in their educational attainment. The authority needs to speed up the time taken to complete assessments on children and address the number of children without an allocated social worker. (CSSIW, 2009) Social services for children are led by the Head of Service (child and family) who reports to the corporate director of social services within a discrete social services directorate. The child and family senior management team comprises four principal officers, the safe-guarding children’s coordinator and the business manager. The manager of the multi-agency youth offending services also reports to the head of service. Child and family services share, with adult services principal officers for staff training, personnel and communication and strategic management. Teams for assessment, care management and service provision are located over ten sites within the city of Swansea. There are 378 employees within the children’s division. (CSSIW, 2009) The authority continues to provide directly an extensive range of well-regarded family support services. All referrals for the authority’s family support services go to one source, so that support may best be targeted to the identified need and to avoid duplication. The increasing demand for support services means that it is not always possible to offer the amount of support a family might truly need. There is a continuing tension in family support between early intervention/ prevention and child protection and services have to be offered to families in greatest need. Core services have to be targeted to children on the child protection register or who have recently been de-registered and are sometimes required 2 or 3 times per week. There were concerns at the time of the last review that some families were missing out on services because they did not have an allocated social worker. This has changed somewhat because of the reduction in the amount of unallocated work and because of an easing of requirements for some services – services from the Child and Adolescent Support Team (CAST), community day care and flexi care home support can all now be offered in the absence of continuing case management. CAST provides a range of groups for young people and a considerable amount of their work is with schools; the team can work with the whole family and make links to the children’s education. CAST workers can negotiate with schools to put a package together to keep a child at school or return a child to school. There has been an increase in referrals and PARIS ICT system has assisted in this. CAST team can see the initial assessments on the system and the referral form to the team is self-populating. Social workers and service-users praised the flexi homecare service, in particular, for its speed of response to a request for service. Services’ staff records their involvement with families and the advent of the electronic recording system has meant that social workers can have speedy access to these records. (CSSIW, 2009) Good quality services for children and families are provided by partner agencies and the following are some examples. Barnardo’s runs a Children Matter service in Penlan. This is a tier 2 service, based around parenting and emotional literacy. Swansea Young Families is a tenancy support project, set up by funding from Cymorth and Supporting People Revenue Grant. Three new Flying Start schemes are up and running. This is a combined service with health visitors and includes skills and language development. The authority has 161 approved foster carers providing 305 placements, including short breaks. The One-to-One specialist fostering service has not been as successful as had been hoped and this is being reviewed, alongside all family support and residential services, as part of a new prevention and placement strategy. The authority is still making extensive use of independent fostering and residential placements although it has not formalised any arrangements for preferred purchasing or block contracting. Because of the high demand for foster placements for looked-after children, it is difficult to provide a service for respite care for children in need, where shared care with parents may be an alternative to the children becoming looked-after by the authority full-time. The authority owns and manages three small community homes on sites at Cockett and Blaenymaes, the latter having opened since the last review. Both CSSIW and the authority have had concerns about these establishments, particularly relating to behaviour by young residents, the inappropriate mix of residents, breaches of the statements of purpose and incidents of self-harm by young residents. (Welsh Assembly Government, 2003) The authority does not lose many carers to private agencies; and approaches are made by carers from outside Swansea to join the service because of its reputation for support. There has also been a high profile recruitment campaign which has had some success in recruiting enough new carers to keep overall numbers stable. This needs to be sustained and recruitment further developed to achieve a net increase in both the numbers of carers and the choice and skills they provide. Although the overall percentage of looked-after children in family placements is equal to the Wales average too many children are waiting for respite care or being placed out of the county through lack of local specialist and choice. A review of Children’s Social Services in March/April 2007 concluded that; â€Å"Swansea is a large city, with the diverse range of challenges usually present in such communities. Social services have enjoyed the support of council members including financial support. The authority’s social services have traditionally relied on a staff culture of good professional practice. Like all local authorities it has experienced the growing demands of expectations of vulnerable people in a complex modern society. Like others it has also seen the leach of skilled and experienced staff to the growing service sector and the fragility of the newer inexperienced childcare workforce. The authority has perhaps been slower than some in recognising the impact of these changes. It can no longer rely on culture but must establish robust systems to ensure sound practice and processes. Wherever families live within the city boundary they are entitled to a similar and satisfactory standard of service from the local authority. There is still a core of good staff employed by the authority and they are the key resource for change. They need to e engaged in a process of re-establishing safe and sound childcare services and the previous â€Å"sparkle† which one staff member said had been lost.† (CSSIW, 2009) Social services have benefited from competent management and stronger corporate leadership is now emerging across the council. There are some excellent partnerships, a healthy level of planning capacity and an established business planning culture. Swansea has a major asset in the quality and commitment of its workforce. The authority is strengthening its consultation with service users and has positive plans to modernise its information technology systems. Swansea’s overall strengths, however suggest that a faster pace of change could be achieved in some key areas to ensure that aspirations are more quickly turned into results. References City County of Swansea, (2009). Population Statistics for Swansea. {Online} Available: http://www.swansea.gov.uk/index.cfm?articleid=28567 City and County of Swansea (2010) Better Swansea Partnership. {Online} Available:http://www.swansea.gov.uk/index.cfm?articleid=11034 Communities and Local Government (2004) Community Involvement and Planning: The Governments Objectives. London: Office of the Deputy Prime Minister CSSIW (2009) Review of Children’s Social Services in the City and County of Swansea. Cardiff: Care and Social Services Inspectorate Wales Greer, Roger C. and Martha L. Hale, (2002) â€Å"The Community Analysis Process.† Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited, Hart, M (1998) Sustainable Measures. West Hartford: Subject Matters Hawtin et al, (1994). Community profiling: auditing social needs. Buckingham: Open University Press Local Vision, (2008) Developing and Delivering Community Strategies: Statutory Guidance from the Welsh Assembly Government. Cardiff: Community Strategies Malin, N (1999) Community care for nurses and the caring professions. Buckingham: Open University Press National Health Service, (2003) Health, Social Care and Well-being Strategies (Wales) Regulations. Swansea: National Health Service Trust Office for National Statistics, (2010) Mid-Year Population Estimates – 2009.. London: UK Statistics Authority Welsh Assembly Government (2003) Health, Social Care and Well-Being Strategies: Preparing a Strategy. {Online} Available:http://wales.gov.uk/dhss/publications/health/strategies/wellbeingstrategy/preparinge.pdf

Types Of Tree Diagrams

Types Of Tree Diagrams Total quality management is the philosophy of management for continuous improvement in term of quality in the process and the products. To implement the total quality management, it have several tool that can be used by the person who want to implement the total quality management. One of the tool is tree diagram. The definition of tree diagram is the graphical or diagram tool that systematically break down, and then mapped in detail in growing, all components or elements of the situation, phenomenon, process, or condition at the stage of succession. It also used when to make the calculations of probabilities and to make the decision. By using tree diagram also, the description of the problem can be seen in more clearly. Tree diagram know as systematic diagram, analytical tree, hierarchy diagram and tree analysis. It called systematic diagram because of the systematically map all the details related to a problem or project. That way it helps to achieve the ultimate goal and every goal related sub-issues under study. This is also called Dendrogram as the word dendro in Greek mean tree. The tree diagram starts with a node or item is divided into two or more branches, then each branch will be divide into two or more. With the branches of the tree it will look like a tree. Thats why its called a tree diagram. It is used to break down the big categories or problem into the smaller categories/problem with a more detailed level. By making a tree diagram, it helps us to think thoughts of a move to a move from general to more specific. Type of tree diagram Tree diagram have several different types. The types are : Cause and effect tree diagram Y to x tree diagram Functional tree diagram Abstraction tree diagram Each of the tree diagram has a core and strength which can be surprisingly challenging to capture when a project team tried to build one or more of them. Diagrams have enough similarities in the required data and building process that the team can tangle them up a little potentially dulling results. The table below outlines each type of tree diagram, providing information which helps differentiate the trees by style and function. Cause-and-Effect Tree Diagram Y-to-x Tree Diagram Functional Tree Diagram Abstraction Tree Diagram Application Uncover root causes that are actionable to change the problematic effect. Identify and classify factors (independent variables) that may drive an important results variable. Identifiy general and specific functionality that operates inconcert in a product or process. The tree structure helps check for completeness and reports the analysis in ways that can hide or expose details appropriate to different audiences. Distill fragments of data to find messages and themes that are not evident in raw data by itself. Tree powerfully and succinctly reports the insights derived by the team constructing it. Starting Point A documented effect A results measure (dependent variable) One or more functions delivered by a product or process Facts that answer a theme question Construction Top Down: Starting with the effect, asking why in a nested and branching pattern to surface fundamental causes. Top Down: Asking the question, What factors may drive changes in the measure at the current node? From Top, Middle or Bottom: Organizing a group of connected functions from the general view to the detailed view. Bottom Up: Understanding and grouping factual answers to a theme question using rules of abstraction. Discovering and reporting themes that may have been evident in raw data. Node Wording Describes factual situations without ambiguity Describes factors (variables) that can change value Uses positive, active verbs to describe the nodes functionality Uses factual report language, free of judgment, emotion or inference Cause-and-Effect Tree Diagrams Cause and effect diagram is easy and effective. But sometimes when we have a lot of causes, when a deeper analysis is required for each source individually, the best way to manage by making as tree diagram. Figure 3: Another Pitfall Branches That Do Not Answer the Why Example of Cause and Effect Tree Diagram Y-to-x Tree Diagram A Y-to-x tree diagram starts with an important decision step (Y) and ask the question, What are the factors drive this Y? Although it is not really different from the question of cause and effect, the thrust and content of this tree diagram wants to be distinctly different. Each node in the tree diagram must describe steps or factors that can take different valuesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹. Factors that could describe the steps that is diversified in continuous (such as time and capacity) for category (such as small, medium and large) but they all have to explain the steps. Although the spirit of inquiry is the same in each of these cases, by raising questions about the driving factors, the Y-to-x tree diagram interpreting to different languages à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹in the node label, and it led to a different types of a lower level outcome or results, with x identified. Each node should define steps that factors which can take different values Figure 5: Section of Y-to-x Flowdown Tree for a Medical Device Example of Y-to-x tree diagram Functional Tree Diagrams It can be used to develop administrative functions. In this tree diagram type, it can be split as follows :- Target circumstances to work in every department Describe the purpose of the work. This will bring on the findings a new approach for work, facilitating the improvement and ultimately achieve departmental objectives. This will help to improve administrative structure of itself. Functional tree diagram also used as an engineering method dates back, with verbs are always be used to accurately describe the function. More recently, object-oriented mindset has developed use cases that extend the use of (still focused on verb) to the software and business systems. Example of Functional Tree Diagram A functional tree diagram it is easier to read and study if every node label focusing on the positive, active verb (such as measured, gathering or read). If a team slipped into the label describing the steps or where or how the function occurs, leaders need to pull the team back to the easier verb discipline. Abstraction Tree Diagrams (KJ or Affinity) A KJ (language of processing tool named after its creator, namely Jiro Kawakita) or properly performed affinity diagram to organize the facts in a hierarchy like a tree. Unique among other trees tools that are considered here because they are built from the bottom to the top, abstraction rules apply KJ discover and articulate key messages on the tree diagram. Some of the concepts or themes that may distill meaning is not immediately obvious when looking at the facts much lower. Figure 8: Section of KJ Diagram (Abstraction Tree) Example Abstraction Tree Diagram . When to Use a Tree Diagram When assigned tasks instead of tasks we always do and requires a thorough understanding of or attention and careful planning before we do. When problems or things to be resolved is in a large scope and we need to solve in detail and in-depth such as in producing a new product or concept to achieve the aims and objectives. When developing the solution or an action to conduct other plans. When reviewing and related analysis process in-depth and detail. When want to find the causes and the solution to a problem or error. When assessing or examining issues related to the Implementation of some or all of which maybe can be the solution to the problem. After the affinity diagram or relationship diagram has been successful in identifying significant issues or cause problems. As a tool to be used during the presentation in detail and depth to others. Tree Diagram Procedure Make or create goals, vision or planning projects or whatever is being studied or research. List and write at the top of the list and write (for vertical tree diagram) or far off of the work surface (for horizontal tree diagram). Ask a question that will lead you to the next level of detail. For example: For a goal, action plan or work breakdown structure: What tasks must be done to accomplish this? or How can this be accomplished? For root-cause analysis: What causes this? or Why does this happen? For gozinto chart: What are the components? (Gozinto literally comes from the phrase What goes into it? Brainstorm all possible answers. If an affinity diagram or relationship diagram has been done previously, ideas may be taken from there. Write each idea in a line below (for a vertical tree) or to the right of (for a horizontal tree) the first statement. Show links between the tiers with arrows. Do a necessary and sufficient check. Are all the items at this level necessary for the one on the level above? If all the items at this level were present or accomplished, would they be sufficient for the one on the level above? Each of the new idea statements now becomes the subject: a goal, objective or problem statement. For each one, ask the question again to uncover the next level of detail. Create another tier of statements and show the relationships to the previous tier of ideas with arrows. Do a necessary and sufficient check for each set of items. Continue to turn each new idea into a subject statement and ask the question. Do not stop until you reach fundamental elements: specific actions that can be carried out, components that are not divisible, root causes. Do a necessary and sufficient check of the entire diagram. Are all the items necessary for the objective? If all the items were present or accomplished, would they be sufficient for the objective? Tree Diagram Example The Pearl River, NY School District, a 2001 recipient of the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award, uses a tree diagram to communicate how district-wide goals are translated into sub-goals and individual projects. They call this connected approach The Golden Thread. The district has three fundamental goals. The first, to improve academic performance, is partly shown in the figure below. District leaders have identified two strategic objectives that, when accomplished, will lead to improved academic performance: academic achievement and college admissions. Tree Diagram Example Tree Diagram Example Lag indicators are long-term and results-oriented. The lag indicator for academic achievement is Regents diploma rate: the percent of students receiving a state diploma by passing eight Regents exams. Lead indicators are short-term and process-oriented. Starting in 2000, the lead indicator for the Regents diploma rate was performance on new fourth and eighth grade state tests. Finally, annual projects are defined, based on cause-and-effect analysis, that will improve performance. In 2000-2001, four projects were accomplished to improve academic achievement. Thus this tree diagram is an interlocking series of goals and indicators, tracing the causes of systemwide academic performance first through high school diploma rates, then through lower grade performance, and back to specific improvement projects. Excerpted from Nancy R. Tagues The Quality Toolbox, Second Edition, ASQ Quality Press, 2004, pages 501-504. A tree diagram is an illustration which generally displays all possible outcomes from one root event or how all of its components are related to one another. When thinking in terms of genealogy, a tree diagram would ideally start with one couple, then branch to their children, then on to their grandchildren and so on. In terms of science or mathematics, these diagrams show all possible results which may stem from one compound or event. Even in subjects like history or English, a tree diagram may be used to show how events or ideas connect to one another. Using a tree diagram in subjects like history may display events and related outcomes in a way in which students understand and remember easier. It is said that 60 percent of the population are visual learners, so diagrams such as these may not only help the individual students, but also aid in overall classroom performance. Other subjects like science and math may use this type of diagram for much the same reason, but diagrams in these subjects tend to show possibilities as well as relationships. The tree diagram may be used in many industries as well. Companies might create a decision diagram to explore the likely benefits and disadvantages of financial ventures before taking any risk. They can outline future paths to reach certain goals easily as well. Medical professionals sometimes create a tree diagram to explain a certain groups risk of disease based on lifestyles, genetics, and other factors. Genetic engineers can even use these diagrams to predict the outcomes of different couplings within the plant, animal, and even human kingdoms. There are even software programs available which create tree diagrams for different purposes. The user may put in a stem occurrence and the number of results he or she wants the program to return. Then the program can quickly analyze the potentialities and build a tree diagram from them. Some programs can even calculate and display the likelihood of each result, such as whether its more likely a couple will have a blue-eyed child or a brown-eyed one. A tree diagram shows how the elements in it are related or how one action or event might end. They are considered a safe way to assess risk and may even be used as a teaching tool. They are most effective when used as a general guideline, as they generally cannot allow for unforeseen variables.

Analysing The World Intellectual Property Organization Economics Essay

Analysing The World Intellectual Property Organization Economics Essay According to the  definition  of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), intellectual property now applies to creations of mind or invention; literary and artistic works; and symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce. Legally, intellectual property includes patents, trade secrets, trademarks, and copyright. Scholars prefer an even broader view of intellectual property.   They prefer a definition that includes individual creativity and socially adopted innovations, as well as collective knowledge (Gollin, 2007). Intellectual property rights (IPR) are legal entitlements granted by governments within their respective sovereignties that provide patent, trademark, and copyright owners the exclusive right to exploit their intellectual property (IP) for a certain period. Defined another way, IPR, broadly, are rights granted to people who create and own works that are the result of human intellectual creativity. The  main  intellectual property rights are copyright, patents, trade marks, design rights, protection from passing off, and the protection of confidential information. IP is normally classified into two categories namely industrial property and copyright. Industrial property includes inventions (patents), industrial designs and trademarks and copyright comprises of musical works, literary works like novels and poems and artistic works like photography, paintings and sculptures for instance. The basic rationale for IPR protection is to provide an incentive for innovation by granting IP owners an opportunity to recover their costs of research and development (NERA Economic Consulting). COPYRIGHT As pointed out above, IP can be divided into two categories namely industrial property and copyright. Copyright assures legal protection for literary works (for example poems, books and film scripts), musical works, artistic works (such as paintings and sculptures), photography, computer software and cinematographic works. Copyright law is meant to protect authors by giving them special rights to commercialize copies of their work in whatever material form (printed publication, audio recording, film, broadcast and so on) is being used to communicate their creative expressions to the public. Even though registration is not normally necessary, it is prudent for authors to have their name put on the work. Nonetheless, legal protection includes the expression of the ideas contained, not the ideas themselves. Copyright offers owners exclusive rights, usually for the length of the authors life plus 50 years. As for audio recordings, copyright is usually bestowed for 50 years and is accessi ble to the author or company in charge for creating the recording. Authorization is probable to involve payment of royalties. These are known as moral rights and stay with the author even if the latter transfers the copyright to somebody else. Economic rights allow the rights owner to obtain financial compensation from the exploitation of his/her works by others. Copyright owners are granted rental rights in order to receive royalties for commercial rental of their works. INDUSTRIAL PROPERTY Industrial property is clearly specified in the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (Article 1 (3)): Industrial property shall be understood in the broadest sense and shall apply not only to industry and commerce proper, but likewise to agricultural and extractive industries and to all manufactured or natural products, for example, wines, grain, tobacco leaf, fruit, cattle, minerals, mineral waters, beer, flowers, and flour. Industrial property takes a wide array of forms. These consist of patents to protect inventions and industrial designs, which are visual creations establishing the appearance of industrial products. Industrial property also includes trademarks, service marks, layout-designs of integrated circuits, commercial names and designations, as well as geographical indications, and protection against unfair competition. In some of these, the aspect of intellectual creation, although existent, is less clearly defined. What matters here is that the obj ect of industrial property typically consists of signs conveying information, particularly to consumers, as regards products and services offered on the market. Protection is intended against unauthorized use of such signs likely to deceive consumers, and against deceptive practices in general. Trademarks A trademark is a sign which helps in making the distinction of the goods or services of one company from those of another. Such signs may use words, letters, numerals, pictures, shapes and colors, as well as any combination of the above. It usually consists of a distinctive design, word, or phrases, generally placed on the product label and sometimes demonstrated in advertisements. For example, LOreal is a trademark that can only be employed on products produced by the LOreal Company. A lot of countries are now allowing for the registration of less conventional forms of trademark, such as three-dimensional signs (like the Fanta bottle or Toblerone chocolate bar), audible signs (sounds, such as the roar of the lion that precedes films produced by MGM), or olfactory signs (smells, such as perfumes). But many countries have laid down perimeters as to what may be registered as a trademark, generally consenting to only signs that are visually perceptible or can be represented graphically. When utilized in association with the marketing of the goods, the sign may appear in advertisements, for example in newspapers or on television, or in the windows of the shops in which the goods are sold. Trademarks facilitate the choice to be made by the consumer when buying certain products or using certain services. The trademark helps the consumer to identify a product or service which was already familiar to him or which was advertised. The owner of a registered trademark has an exclusive right as far as his mark is concerned. It gives him the right to use the mark and to prevent unauthorized use of it. Patents Legal action can be undertaken against those who violate the patent by copying the invention or selling it without authorization from the patent owner. Patents can be bought, sold, hired, or licensed. When doing a patent application, some criteria need to be satisfied. The patent examiners should be convinced that the invention is Several types of patent may be granted (Lesser 1991, p. 14): Uses: covers a precise use only. Hence, it would cover the above drug uniquely as a cure for cancer and not for any uses that are later discovered. Products-by-process: consists of only products manufactured by the process described in the application. Therefore, it would cover the drug, but only when manufactured by a particular process. It must be noted that not all inventions that satisfy the above conditions can seek protection by patent. In many countries, medicines and genetically modified organisms cannot be patented at all. There are variations in national patent laws because each country has its own preferences when it comes to defining what inventions may be patented and these laws normally conform to the countrys perceived national interest. HISTORY OF IPR Since the first intellectual property system came into existence in the West, humanity has gone through nearly four hundred years. In the nearly four hundred years of history, intellectual property rights have completed their conversion from feudal power to peoples private rights. Today, it is irrefutable that the revolution brought by IPR has not only broadened the conventional content of property rights system, but also led the intellectual property system to become the worlds most significant property rights system, and also made a deep impact on mankind in the 21st century. However, the emergence of this new system is not a straightforward process. With the advent of new technologies and human cognitive aptitude, as an implement to balance the private rights and public interests, the intellectual property system has always stumbled upon challenges and disagreements. The IP system was first introduced in the west and was later established throughout the world. For the IPR system, Patent law is the first system to be introduced in the world. The coming out of the patent system gave birth to human intellectual property system. The United States even established the principle of protection of proprietary technology in the Constitution, made patent protection to the height to constitutional level. The history of copyrights has some strong monarchical power background. Before the beginning of the copyright system, many countries have had long-standing system of printing privileges. According to this franchise system, the king can grant a printed right to license the printer rather than the copyright owners. In 1709, Britain built the first modern copyright law the Queen Anne Act. Following this, the United Kingdom, France and Germany set up the copyright system respectively. Under the influence of these countries as a pioneer, the copyright system has been gradually acknowledged by Governments. Trademarks originated in Spain. The trademark system in the modern sense started in the 19th century. In 1857, France established the first legal system in the world to protect trademarks. Consequently, the trademark system rapidly grew in other parts of the world. Many countries accepted and implemented a variety of forms of intellectual property rights in different approach and evolution. At the same time, new types of intellectual property rights have continued to be progressively incorporated into the system of intellectual property rights. All these developments reveal that the historical development of the intellectual property system has gone through a stage of steady development. By the end of the eighties, the new trend of civil legislation began to emerge. Many countries tried to develop the Code of intellectual property or incorporate intellectual property law into the Civil Code. These activities started out a wave of codification of intellectual property rights. Since the late 19th century onwards, along with the new technological development and the extension of international trade, intellectual property transactions in the international arena have also started with the formation and development. At the same time, there was a big contradiction between international demand for intellectual property rights and regional constraints. In order to find a solution to this contradiction, some countries have signed the International Convention for the protection of intellectual property, and established a number of global or regional international organizations. A system of international protection of intellectual property rights was set up in the world. The convention of Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property(set up by France, Germany, Belgium, and 10 other countries and launched in 1883) is the first international convention in protecting IP. Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Art is the first international convention about copyright. The establishment of International Conventions specified that the intellectual property system had reached the international stage. Among them, approved under the framework of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1993, Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement(TRIPS) succeeded to come to conclusion between developed country and developing country, which amplified the national standards of protection of intellectual property rights to a unified higher platform. More about these regulatory bodies and agreements will be discussed afterwards. In this new century, intellectual property rights system is facing new challenges. The adverse effects of intellectual property system are appearing slowly. In some developing countries, the protection of IPR has brought about the exorbitant cost of some medicines and other necessities; the price of some products with IPR is so high that it cannot meet the needs of people in difficulty. To solve these problems, developed countries have begun a new set of amendments to the legislative activities of the intellectual property system. New laws and regulations continue to be adopted, and the scope of intellectual propertys objects has continued to grow. In spite of this, the concern for IPR system has become an appealing trend. Developed countries take its monopoly of advanced scientific knowledge as an alluring weapon for technology leadership. Developing countries take the absorbing and creating knowledge as an important way to catch up with developed countries. It can be anticipated, that the next era is not only to develop and possess social substantial resources, but also to develop and possess mortal knowledge resources. Moreover, with the expansion of global economic integration, the international process of intellectual property system will definitely speed up. Protection of intellectual property rights has not only become the compulsory conditions of a country to promote economic development, but also it is considered a prerequisite so as to maintain international competitiveness. IPR IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES As a social system stimulating innovation, the intellectual property system has been established in the Western countries at first, and has later spread in the world. Walking along with its historical development, the course of intellectual property system in Western countries has gone through three main stages which called as germination stage, development and internationalization stages. Intellectual property, possibly a current phenomenon and perhaps too narrative to some, nevertheless has portrayed western economics, multi national co-operations and supported western economic colonization. As discussed previously, IPR was and still is a controversial subject. While Europe may have fared fairly well in comparison with the US, problems are rising in the EU as well. From an economic perspective, there is a need for harmonizing European administrative and legal practices in the area of IPRs while increasing the quality standards used in these system. Moreover, a new balance between the owners of rights and users of the protected subject matter needs to be found in many fields. With its Lisbon Agenda, the European Union has nurtured a future vision of a region concentrating on learning and innovation so as to sustain high levels of productivity and wealth. To attain these objectives, EU policies will need to promote innovation and encourage investments in new and more competent products, processes and organizational routines. Intellectual property plays an important part in this vision, and in several areas, the EU has embarked on a course meant to reinforce rights that foster innovation. Examples of some controversies in Europe involve the arguments on copyright and Digital Rights Management (DRM) systems, on the protection of computer software through patents and/or copyright, and the degree of patent protection for biotechnological inventions. In many jurisdictions, the rights of IPR owners have been reinforced as compared to the rights of other parties. Wholly new IPRs (such as for database protection) have been formulated. These amendments have brought about a number of policy issues. Patent systems are under strain not just in Europe, but in other countries as well. Like in the US, both patent submissions and patent grants at the EPO have increased much faster than Research and Development (RD) inputs in OECD countries. From 1990 to 2000, EPO patent applications rose from 70,955 to 145,241 (an average growth rate of 7.4 per cent per annum) while OECD RD inputs grew from $398 to $555 billion which reveals an average annual growth of 3.4 per cent. As for the actual grant rate (the share of patent applications leading to a patent grant) remained almost stable at about 65 percent for patents with application years from 1978 to 1995. There are three major obstacles to the future design of European IPR policies, the first being harmonization. If the EU wants to become a region focusing on innovation without being bothered by national barriers, there is definitely a need for coming up with truly European IPR policies and institutions. That comprises of harmonized interpretation of IPR laws, harmonized court proceedings and the setting up of legal institutions which resolve cases that have been very much controversial. A second significant criterion is the focus on balance. The naive belief that more and stronger IPRs are always excellent for innovation has been contested by scientists in empirical and theoretical work over the last decades. Balance in copyrights means that fair use of rights of consumers have to be considered seriously. Third, IPRs that are granted on the basis of an examination process should be of high quality in the sense that they create legal certainty, rather than uncertainty. European institutions, in particular the European Patent Office, should seek to grant high-quality patent rights which are based on tough standards for novelty and inventive step. Despite a complete array of rules on the protection of intellectual property, counterfeiting and piracy have continued to rise in the world because offenders have the possibility of making considerable profits without risking any serious legal consequences. In July 2005, the Commission presented a double proposal for a  directive   and a  Council framework decision     aimed at introducing criminal sanctions for IPR infringements.  The general penalty is for the court to grant damages to the patent owner, requiring the offender to pay a certain amount of money to the patent owner.   IPR IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Countries vary to a great extent concerning the protection and enforcement of IPR, with developing countries being normally associated with much lower standards for IPR protection than developed countries. This amount does not take into consideration any imitation of products manufactured and consumed in the same country or counterfeit digital products sold over the Internet. Some of the theoretical literature considers a stylized world with a technologically developed North and a less technologically developed South. These models are based on the premise set forth in Chin and Grossman (1988) where the North innovates and the South imitates the Northern technologies. The main finding of Chin and Grossman (1988) was that a persistent tension exists between the North and the South-while the North innovates, the South chooses low levels of IPR protection because it benefits from the innovative output of the North. The debate for the implementation of appropriate intellectual property rights in the developed countries is fueled since the advanced countries faced a menace to their pioneering technological and non- technological innovations and their commercialization in the developing nations. Subsequently, developing countries have long been demanded by developed nations to implement intellectual property rights. The central apprehension by the developed nations is to protect the innovations in the less developed nations from the illegal counterfeiting and copying. The discussion between both parties, that is, industrialized countries and developing countries is getting intense since the last two decades. The developing countries are parted over the debate due to their economic conditions, FDI and technological sophistication. The concern for the developing countries is the eventual economic repercussions for the implementation of such intellectual property rights in their respective countries. The case can be even harsher for the Least Developed Countries (LDCs), where intellectual property rights are seen as the origin for the high technology cost and barriers for technology access to public. On the other hand however, increased technology transfer with foreign direct investment may somehow validate such regime. But such profitable offers as substitute for IPR in the developing nations, according to some developing countries, are in view of the developed countries benefits and they would be unable to heighten the economic conditions in the developing countries from their present conditions. The social benefits obtained from certain economic systems, established in the advanced nations may not affect the social systems of the developing nations as wished for. So far, different measures, particularly led by the United States have actually compelled the implementation for the intellectual property rights in the developing countries, exclusively backed by the strong business communities in the United States. REGULATORY BODIES There is a need for IPR because, without them, a piece of potentially important information would be subject to overuse, to the point that access to it is not costly, from the perspective of its development and expansion. This use would quickly exhaust the economic worth of the information, limiting incentives to produce it. The contrast between the mounting need for international exploitation of intellectual assets and the territorial (and often underdeveloped) nature of rights to do so resulted in huge pressures for general change in recent years. These pressures triggered broad bilateral, regional, and multilateral negotiations on IPRs, which engendered a significant expansion of required minimum standards, especially in developing economies and countries in transition. The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is an international organization set up to ensure that the rights of creators and owners of intellectual property are respected throughout the world and that inventors and authors are thus recognized and rewarded for their ingenuity. As a specialized organization of the United Nations, WIPO exists as a forum for its Member States to create and synchronize rules and practices to protect intellectual property rights. Most advanced nations have protection systems that are centuries old. Many new and developing countries, however, are now building up their patent, trademark and copyright laws and systems. With the rapid globalization of trade during the last decade, WIPO plays an important role in helping these new systems progress through treaty negotiation, legal and technical assistance, and training in various forms, including in the area of strengthening of intellectual property rights. WIPO also caters for international registrati on systems for patents, trademarks, appellations of origin and industrial designs. These hugely simplify the process for concurrently seeking intellectual property protection in a lot of countries. Instead of having to file national applications in different languages, these systems allow applicants to file a single application, in one language, and to pay a single application fee. In the 1990s the world has shifted radically toward an international system of IPRs. Apprehensions about the piracy and forgery of intellectual property have been increasingly raised in developed countries, where much of the intellectual property is located. As a solution to these concerns, the protection of intellectual property was a major area of negotiation at the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The result of the negotiations was the founding of the World Trade Organization (WTO) to govern the GATT, the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). The TRIPS Agreement is an integral and legally binding part of the WTO that requires all member countries (142 countries as of July 2001) to 12 grant patents for inventions in all fields of technology. It requires them to protect plant varieties either by patents, by an effective sui generis system or by a combination of both. Adherence to the TRIPS agreement for most, if not all member countries, means introducing more severe intellectual property protection (IPP). This is expected to have extensive consequences on the international transfer of technology and trade relationship between the developed and developing countries, especially in agricultural research. Finally, in respect to the large and costly institutional and legal changes these provisions need in countries with restricted IPR systems, transition periods are granted. General obligations (national treatment and MFN) were to be operational immediately upon the implementation of the WTO. Developing countries and countries in transition should meet the detailed obligations within five years (that is, by January 1, 2000) and least-developed countries must meet them within eleven years (by January 1, 2006). The latter countries may, upon request to the TRIPS Council, be given extensions for an unspecified period, signifying that they have been given an opt-out procedure. Countries are free to accelerate their adherence to TRIPS. The TRIPS Agreement leads in a new global framework for IPRs. It clearly built up minimum standards for protection, moving the system closer to harmonization, and inclines the balance of economic rewards toward innovative interests and away from counterfeiting and imitation. The TRIPS Agreement provides minimum national standards for levels of protection to the creators of intellectual property. Article 27.1 of this Agreement requires members to provide for patents for all inventions, whether products or processes, in all fields of technology. BENEFIT OR DETRIMENT FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES? The net economic effect on developing nations from establishing and protecting IPR is not completely obvious. Some have insisted that strengthening IPR protection will improve economic growth and wellbeing in developing nations, and others argue that it will be unfavorable, thereby diminishing overall welfare. Among the possible costs of this type of policy are decreased incomes in industries that depend on copying the products of industrialized nations and the related increases in the prices of protected commodities. For example, increasing IPR protection in the less-developed countries can promote innovation in there. Certainly there are certain short-term costs linked with intellectual property rights for the developing nations, like higher prices for the technology and protected goods. Given this, the case for tighter intellectual property rights in these countries must rely on long term benefits like superior technology or foreign direct investment inflows and bigger incentive to national innovation. FDI inflows in a country come mostly in the form of Multinational Corporations (MCs). MCs are able to stay really competitive when they are successful in transferring IP and other intangible assets to their global locations of operations. These sources of competitive advantage can be anything from a proprietary manufacturing plan for semiconductors to a cleaning solvent formula. But before taking any decision to set up any assets in a country, multinational managerial committees should analyze whether the country where they are going to transfer their technology has appropriate IPR to protect the organization against offenders and imitators. Studying the impact of more rigid IPR protection in a less technologically developed South (developing countries) on welfare in both the North (developed countries) and the South, Diwan and Rodrik (1991) found that net-innovation consuming countries (the South) were only motivated to safeguard IPR if the type of innovation demanded was different from the type demanded in the net-innovation-producing countries (the North). Evenson (1992) refers to these middle-income countries as being in the technology draught, because they tend to focus RD efforts on adaptation, imitation, and reverse engineering. As economies become more innovative at the uppermost levels of income, patent protection tends to increase dramatically. According to World Bank Global Economic Perspective, there are certain particular reasons for advanced countries, and interestingly for the developing nations to follow the TRIPS agreement, that is, it may offer developing countries improved access to agricultural and apparel markets in prosperous nations, an expectation that tighter IPR would also promote further technology transfer and innovation. However, according to World Bank, the guarantee for durable benefits seems doubtful and costly to accomplish in many countries, especially the Least Developed Countries (LDCs). Moreover, the administrative costs and tribulations with higher prices for medicines and crucial technological inputs loom large in the minds of policy makers in developing nations. Many are favoring considerable provisions in the agreement. Some developing countries also applied for the provisions in implementation for the patent protection, particularly in pharmaceutical industry. In developing countries, the lack of international IPR protection has helped in creating massive employment. India is one of the leaders in reproducing medicines and drugs manufactured by foreign companies. The reason it can do so is because Indias patent act forbids product patents for any invention intended for use or capable of being used as a food, medicine, or drug or relating to substances prepared or produced by chemical processes. This in return has negative effects on the international pharmaceutical industry. The US pharmaceutical industry is estimated to incur annual losses of $450 million due to imitation. It would prove to be very costly for these countries to adopt the IPR laws overnight in its totality. This would mean loss of job for many; inadequate access to medicines and drugs for needy people and all these could eventually lead to social unrest. Countries with weak IPR protection are well positioned to gain an immediate benefit to lower-priced goods or technologies. Countries with lack of strong IPR protection must therefore compare these benefits with the loss of international willingness to invest resources or develop products, as well as lessened innovative commodities within the country. Maskus (2000) notes three potential costs namely: 1. Higher prices for imported products and new technologies under IPR protection 2. Loss of economic activity, by the closure of imitative activities. 3. The possible abuse of protection by the patent holders, especially large foreign companies. Some countries have accepted to adhere to TRIPS in order to benefit from concessions in other (non-technological) fields of economic activity, such as more aid, freer and greater access to developed country markets for key exports and so on. Whether they really benefited in these ways stays an open question, since neither the costs nor the benefits of TRIPS associated concessions have been appropriately calculated. Nonetheless such implementation would also fuel the local innovation in the developing nations, permitting them to import the foreign technologies and have hands-on experience in learning and using the technologies. In addition, the strength and efficiency of enforcement efforts also differ with economic development stages. This reveals both a reluctance to bear the expensive administrative expenses related with enforcement and the incapacity to handle many of the complex technical and judicial matters linked with the use and infringement of IPRs. However, there is an essential tradeoff between the market power caused by stronger IPRs, which are likely to improve the ability of firms to fragment markets and limit trade, and the market-expansion impact of increasing the costs of counterfeit activity. Detractors of the TRIPs Agreement claim that the step towards more rigid IPR may harm poor